By Deborah O'Toole

For Ambermont Magazine

At the age of ten, most children are interested in playing, eating and sleeping. However, at the ripe old age of ten years I became fascinated with the period of history known as the Tudor Era. More specifically, about Henry VIII, his wives and their combined offspring: Mary I (also referred to as Bloody Mary); Edward VI and Elizabeth I (also known as Gloriana and the Virgin Queen). My first pique of interest began when I watched the PBS series The Six Wives of Henry VIII in 1971; I absorbed the history, dialog and settings of the drama while watching the story unfold with my parents, and I have been a certified Tudorphile ever since.

Afterward, I bought every book about the Tudor era I could get my hands on, or checked volumes out from the local library. My first foray into the Tudor realm came with A Crown for Elizabeth by Mary M. Luke, and this was no small undertaking for someone of my tender years. The publication read more like a historical textbook and contained almost 600 pages, but I remained consumed just the same.

From the beginning, I favored books about Henry VIII's second wife, Anne Boleyn, and their daughter, the future Queen Elizabeth I. Anne's story changed the religious position of England, and remains one of the most riveting true tales of history. By doing the unthinkable - refusing to become Henry VIII's mistress, instead demanding honor in matrimony - Anne and the King brought about England's break with the Catholic Church, and the seat of its power in Rome. The resulting consequences displayed the frequent brutality of Henry VIII's nature, and his inherent belief in the divine right of kings.

Early Life:

It is generally believed that Anne Boleyn was born on or around May 1, 1501 at a manor house in Blicking, Norfolk, England; the second daughter of Thomas Boleyn and Elizabeth Howard. Many still claim Anne was born at Hever Castle in Kent, although it has been proven she did not move there until after her birth. Thomas Boleyn (pictured at right) came from basic "common" stock, although his mother had been daughter to the Irish Earl of Ormonde. Anne's mother Elizabeth was the daughter of Thomas Howard, Earl of Surrey. Thomas Boleyn would later be created the Viscount Rochford, a title given to him by Henry VIII when Anne was firmly ensconced at court. 

The match between Thomas Boleyn and Elizabeth Howard produced five children, only three of which survived infancy: daughter Mary (thought to have been born in 1499); followed by Anne in 1501, and son George in 1504. Two other sons, Thomas and Henry, died as babies. Anne spent much of her childhood at Hever Castle in Kent (pictured below), which was surrounded by a moat and lush countryside. Thomas Boleyn is said to have noticed fairly early that Anne was exceptionally bright, a "toward girl" who "took all possible care for her good education."

Anne became accomplished in the female pursuits of her day: she could play an assortment of musical instruments such as the lute and the virginals; her academic education included literary instruction, Italian hand-writing and the French language. From her mother Anne learned the art of embroidery, and she also had a flair for poetry and was known to compose her own verse.

From birth, Anne also possessed what was called a "sixth finger" or a "second nail" on one of her hands. In later years, this physical "deformity" would be used against her, implying that the presence of the digit was somehow supernatural or evil. Anne's other prepossessing qualities included black eyes, long dark brown hair (which she often interlaced with jewels) and a petite stature. She had a thin face with high cheekbones and a pointed chin. Although not beautiful in a conventional sense, Anne had a vivacious personality and fluid movement that attracted people to her, especially men.

As with many young girls of her class and position, Anne spent time in other royal courts of Europe. These stints were conducted not only to further educate and refine Anne, but to also make her more appealing as a future wife to a man of noble birth. In 1513, Anne was dispatched to serve in the household of Margaret of Austria, Regent of the Netherlands. Anne remained in Austria for eighteen months, after which her father sent her to the royal French court of Louis XII. Anne became maid of honor to the French king's new bride, Mary Tudor of England (Henry VIII's sister). Anne followed in the footsteps of her own sister Mary, who had also served at the French court.

After Louis XII died in 1515 and his widow returned to England, Anne and her sister Mary remained in France and entered the household of the new Queen Claude, wife to Louis XII's successor, Francis I.

Anne learned by example from her sister Mary's mistakes. While in France, Mary became the mistress of Francis I for a brief time. Instead of following the same ruinous path, Anne took on the qualities of discretion; acquiring poise, charm and her own unique sense of style. In France, she was known to dress with "marvelous" taste and was regarded as "the glass of fashion." Later, Anne would be responsible for introducing the French hood into England, a style that would remain popular for more than sixty years.

Before the King:

When Anne was born in 1501, the king of England was Henry VII; he would be followed in the succession by his son Henry VIII in 1509. Young Hal was actually the King's second son; the first being Prince Arthur who died shortly after his marriage to Princess Catherine of Aragon from Spain, after which Prince Henry became heir to the English throne. When he finally did assume the title of King in 1509, Henry VIII would take his brother's widow Catherine of Aragon as his first wife. These particular facts would play a crucial role in Henry's life later on, and would literally change the direction of English history in due course.

Catherine was older than Henry by six years; a very pious and regal woman who had been raised a blood Princess in Spain by her parents, Queen Isabella and King Ferdinand. After her marriage to Arthur and following his subsequent untimely death, Catherine lived in virtual exile in England for several years until King Henry VII died and young Prince Hal became the reigning monarch. Perhaps more from pity the new King Henry took Catherine as his bride, but not before receiving a special dispensation from Rome. In the sixteenth century, a marriage between a man and the widow of his own brother was considered unholy - such unions were forbidden in the bible. But Henry married Catherine anyway, and she was duly crowned the Queen of England; revered and respected not only by the English masses, but by the noble hierarchy itself. Although Catherine would become pregnant many times over the ensuing years, only one child from the union would survive to maturity: Princess Mary (born in 1515). As sons were essential to the continuance of the monarchy, the realization that Catherine could only produce a living daughter left the King highly disappointed. In a day and age when child-gender was thought to be the sole responsibility of women, the King held himself blameless.

In the meantime, Anne Boleyn returned to England from France in 1522. Even before leaving the French court, discussions had already taken place for her own advantageous marriage to her distant cousin Sir James Butler, son of Sir Piers Butler. Henry VIII and his closest adviser, Cardinal Wolsey, also became involved in the matter. At the time, Butler was a member of Wolsey's household in London, and it seemed only natural that the Cardinal would take an interest in Butler's affairs. It was common practice for young men of noble birth to attach themselves to a household such as Wolsey's, whereupon they finished their educations and developed insight to life at the Tudor court.

However, a marriage between Anne and James Butler would never take place. Instead, negotiations for the union were "mysteriously" abandoned in late 1522. Once back in England, Anne returned to Hever Castle an accomplished young woman rather than the young girl who arrived at the French court nine years previous.

It is said that most everything about Anne Boleyn was French when she returned to England, from her dress style to her speech and impeccable behavior. She also had great wit and a sharp intelligence, and before long Anne's father had secured her a place in the household of Catherine of Aragon, Henry's VIII's first wife and Queen.

Once at court, Anne became involved with Henry Percy, heir to the earldom of Northumberland. Percy was part of Cardinal Wolsey's household, and the young man would present an advantageous match for Anne as he would inherit an old and respected earldom and country estate (Alnwick Castle); and being married to Percy would also create Anne a Countess. Most historians agree that Percy and Anne shared a genuine love match as well, but as Percy was of the nobility any marriage he desired had to be approved by the King. Cardinal Wolsey presented the King with plans for the match between Percy and Anne, certain the King would approve, but Henry had other ideas.

According to historical accounts, the thought of Anne being contracted to another man "disturbed" the King - so much so that he told Wolsey of the "secret affection he had been harboring for Mistress Anne" and instructed Wolsey to sever the engagement between Anne and Percy. Sorrowed and angry by the turn of events, Anne believed Wolsey to be wholly responsible for the break and vowed someday to wreck vengeance on him. "If it ever lay in my power," Anne declared, "I will work the Cardinal as much displeasure as he has done to me."

After the split with Percy, Anne would retreat to Hever Castle for more than a year. Henry VIII's passion for her seemed to hinge on her presence, and she was soon far from his thoughts. 

The King's Great Matter:

Henry VIII had entertained several mistresses over the years - under the all-knowing eye of his long-suffering wife Catherine - and this collection of women had also included Anne's own sister, Mary Boleyn. After the King tired of her, Mary had wed William Carey and bore a child shortly after the marriage. Some historical accounts hint that the child was the King's rather than the offspring of Mary's new husband.

Anne Boleyn returned to the royal court and her duties in Queen Catherine's household sometime in 1525, whereupon the King's interest in her was rekindled. However, Anne showed her romantic preference for the poet Sir Thomas Wyatt, who was also a favorite at court. The King was certain he could easily seduce Anne into his bed (for what woman had ever refused him before?), but she played the game with Wyatt while the King stewed with jealousy.

Shortly thereafter, the King became an ardent suitor to Anne. Many of his romantic gestures were often out in the open (such as wearing a jousting dress embroidered with the words "Declare I dare not"), and he also began to writer her garrulous love letters. Some of the notes still survive today, as do Anne's responses.

Certain that Anne would become another in his long line of mistresses, Henry VIII was therefore shocked when Anne rebuffed his physical advances. No one had ever dared to deny him before. Intrigued, the King became more enthralled of Anne rather than angry. Anne's brave refusal to accept the "honor" of becoming the King's mistress made her more desirable to him. It soon became clear that Anne had her own agenda - she would not be the mistress of the King and besmirch her own reputation, nor could she be his wife as he already possessed one in the form of Catherine of Aragon. The Queen was well aware of what was happening between her husband and her maid of honor, but with her usual grace and dignity she gave no outward sign.

The wheels were set in motion. Cardinal Wolsey was confidant that Anne Boleyn would eventually fall out of favor like others had before her, and he did not worry overmuch about the situation initially. But Anne had not forgotten the man who had destroyed her first romance, and Wolsey would pay the ultimate price in due course.

Talk began to surface as early as 1526 that the King was considering divorce or annulment from Catherine of Aragon in order to make Anne Boleyn his wife. Anne's maternal uncle, Thomas Howard the Duke of Norfolk, began to advise his niece discreetly as Henry VIII considered his options. In 1527, the King finally began to instigate the dissolution of his marriage to Catherine of Aragon, hoping Papal supremacy would see his situation for what he truly believed it was: Because he had taken his brother's wife into matrimony, God was showing his displeasure over the unholy confluence by leaving him without legitimate male heirs to succeed him. Never mind that Henry VIII had received a special Papal dispensation to marry Catherine in the first place; he was convinced the union was cursed.

A secret ecclesiastical court was convened in England, headed up by Cardinal Wolsey, to investigate the matter of the King's marriage to Catherine of Aragon. However, it was found by the presiding commissioners that the case was "so obscure and doubtful" that they were not competent to judge it. Later, in May 1529, another hearing was held in England with little result in which Catherine appeared to plead her case ("...in the way of charity and for the love of God, spare me the extremity of this court..."). Because he was the King's closest advisor, Cardinal Wolsey threw himself into the melee although he privately despised Anne and her influence over the King. Advisors were sent to the Pope in Rome to confer upon the matter, and in the meantime Anne Boleyn and her circle of supporters did their best to poison the King's mind against Cardinal Wolsey. As subsequent Papal conferences and wrangles continued without success, the King began to feel the Cardinal was at fault for the essentially dead progress of the "Great Matter."

Legal and religious debates over the marriage would drag on for the next several years. Eventually, Henry VIII would banish Catherine of Aragon to an estate in the English countryside for refusing to acknowledge that their marriage was unlawful; their daughter Princess Mary would also leave the court, although to a separate residence than that of her mother. Unswervingly loyal to the Queen, Princess Mary would also develop an intense hatred for Anne Boleyn that would in later years transfer itself to Anne's daughter by the King, Princess Elizabeth.

Still, Anne Boleyn held herself from the King; they had yet to be physically intimate. The years of waiting had also begun to wear on Anne, and she was known to have a shrewish temper and sharp tongue as the legalities progressed. In addition, the people of England hated her; she was often called "The Great Whore" by the masses and indeed by some of the nobility behind her back.

Rumors of Cardinal Wolsey's sympathy for Catherine of Aragon provoked the King to issue a warrant for his arrest. Ironically, the noble sent to collect the cleric was none other than Anne's first love, Henry Percy (who was by now the Earl of Northumberland). However, before reaching the Tower of London, Wolsey (who had long been ill), died at Leicester Abbey. Anne's revenge may not have been sweet, but the Cardinal was out of the way once and for all.

In Wolsey's place came Thomas Cromwell, who had risen in the ranks of Wolsey's service over the years. It was Cromwell who finally convinced the King to sever the Church of England from control in Rome, although such an action was considered extremely drastic. In early 1531, the King stood before Parliament and demanded that the Church of England recognize him as the "sole protector and supreme head" of England's religious conscience. None dared to defy the King, and shortly afterward it was declared that the King would be acknowledged as the Church of England's supreme head "as far as the law of Christ allows."

Most of the King's subjects were horrified by their country's break with Rome; the majority of the English were fervent and practicing Catholics. To be fair worship in the Church of England- even after the cut from Rome - remained very Catholic in litany as well as gesture. In addition, the King required his nobles and other subjects to sign the Act of Succession - an article acknowledging his marriage to Anne, the legitimacy of Princess Elizabeth and the unlawfulness of his union of Catherine of Aragon. Some with their own scruples - such as Sir Thomas More - refused to sign the act. The penalty for such defiance was execution, but More would not give in and lost his head.

Anne Boleyn finally gave herself to the King sometime in the summer of 1532. To display his love and honor, the King deferred upon Anne the title of Marquess of Pembroke in September 1532, making her a peer in her own right (something which had never been done before in England - women usually received titles through their noble husbands but never on their own merits). A few short months later Anne informed the King that she was pregnant, and a wedding was hastily arranged to take place at Whitehall Palace on January 25, 1533. As far as the King was concerned, he had never been legally married to Catherine of Aragon and was certainly a free man. His position as head of the church strengthened this notion, and the proclamation by Thomas Cranmer (the new Archbishop of Canterbury) that the King's marriage to Catherine of Aragon was indeed invalid seemed to solidify the legality of his marriage to Anne.

In nullifying his marriage to Catherine of Aragon, Henry VIII also bastardized his daughter Princess Mary in the process. For many years to come, Mary would remain stripped of her royal title and simply known as the Lady Mary.

Queen Anne:

Although unbeknownst to her, Anne's time as Queen would be short-lived. She was duly crowned Queen of England in April 1533, much to the displeasure of the hostile crowds of London. The people had adored and loved Queen Catherine, and viewed Anne as nothing more than the King's concubine, the cause of all Catherine's suffering. When the King asked Anne how she "liked the look of the city" during the coronation procession, Anne responded sharply: "Sir, the city itself was well enow, but I saw so many caps on heads and heard but few tongues."

To her dismay, Anne gave birth to a girl on September 7, 1533. While disappointed, the King gave a brave face and told Anne: "You and I are both young - and by God's grace, boys will follow." The new Princess was christened Elizabeth, first in line to the succession. However, in private the King was furious. He had given up much to make Anne his wife and Queen; he was convinced he had been misled not only by Anne but by the advisors who surrounded him.

Anne became pregnant again shortly after the birth of Elizabeth; the King paid her another high honor by providing she be declared regent of England should he die an untimely death. Not long following the event, Anne miscarried the child she was carrying. Several months later Anne became pregnant yet again - unfortunately she also miscarried for a second time.

The loss of another child placed Anne in a precarious position. She was fast losing influence and favor with the King, who had begun to seek the company of other women. Anne knew Henry was unfaithful to her, and realized the irony of her predicament. At one time, Catherine of Aragon had also been on the receiving end of the King's infidelities and hurtful regard, but now it was Anne who swallowed the bitter pill of jealousy. She also understood that if she did not bear Henry VIII a son, she would lose his love entirely. In addition, Anne had started to age visibly from years of stress and worry. Suspicion and paranoia had given her a rather pinched and pale look, but it was probably understandable under the circumstances. Anne's enemies at court could see her sway over the King waning, and those who resented her were exultant.

Anne discovered she was pregnant once more in November 1535, and she was ecstatic. She was convinced the child would be the longed-for son and heir. The King had recently taken up with one of her ladies-in-waiting, Jane Seymour, but Anne knew if she bore the King a son her favor and place in his heart would be restored. Anne's future rested on the outcome of the pregnancy, and this probably did not help Anne's frame of mind - the King was outwardly patient with her, but she knew he would not tolerate another failure on her part.

Shortly after Anne announced her pregnancy, Catherine of Aragon died old, alone and banished at Kimbolton Castle. This made Anne even more fearful of her position. Although Anne had hated Henry's first wife, while she had lived she had provided Anne with somewhat of a safety net. The King's choice to exile Catherine still rankled many of his subjects, but surely he would never do the same to Anne while Catherine still lived. With the legality of his first marriage still held to question in some circles, ridding himself of Anne in similar fashion was unthinkable. But with Catherine's death, Anne's last protective cordon was removed. Her only possible deliverance would be to bear the King a son.

But it was not to be. Anne was miscarried of a son on the day of Queen Catherine's funeral in January 1536. "She has miscarried of her savior," wrote Eustache Chapuys, the Imperial Ambassador to the Tudor court. The King was furious, his consideration of Anne now cold and unfeeling. He visited Anne in her bedchamber after the miscarriage and told her in a rage that "she would get no more sons" by him.

Anne's fate was sealed - the surprise would come in the swiftness of the King's punishment, and the shocking direction in which his anger and disappointment would take him.

Accusations & Execution:

After the miscarriage, Anne believed Henry would simply divorce her. However, Anne was unaware that the King did not want another legal battle or years of infernal waiting. Thomas Cromwell - who had so neatly made it possible for the King to marry Anne in the first place - also provided the answers the King wanted to hear. At first, Henry toyed with the idea of accusing Anne of witchcraft - a capitol crime - to have her removed, but Cromwell had much more drastic measures in mind.

Anne's personal musician Mark Smeaton was brought in by Cromwell's men; Smeaton was tortured on the rack and grilled about his relationship with Anne. At first Smeaton stated he was nothing more than the Queen's musician, but after being tormented he was willing to confess to anything Cromwell suggested. Others accused of over familiarity with Anne included some of the King's closest companions - Sir Henry Norris, Sir Francis Weston and William Brereton. But the worst slander of all was the accusation that Anne had intimate knowledge of her own brother, George Boleyn (Lord Rochford). This bit of information came by way of George Boleyn's wife, Lady Jane Rochford, who claimed she had witnessed unseemly behavior between her husband and his sister Queen Anne.

Adultery in itself was not punishable by death, and was not considered high treason. However, the 1351 "Statute of Treasons" clearly sated that "violating the King's companion" was an act of treason, making only Anne's purported lovers guilty of treason (which was punishable by death). Cromwell was determined that Anne be removed permanently, so he added to the charges of adultery the claim that Anne had also plotted the King's death - which was high treason. The end result was what Cromwell desired - the execution of Anne Boleyn, freeing Henry to remarry and sire male heirs without smudging his already questionable honor. In any event, who would dare defy him?

Anne must have sensed something was amiss; shortly before charges were brought she asked her chaplain, Matthew Parker, to care for her daughter Princesses Elizabeth if anything untoward should happen to her.

Cromwell felt he had an airtight case. In April 1536, he showed the King all of the gathered evidence; angry, Henry believed Anne guilty without question. Perhaps more galling was the realization that he would be known as a cuckold in his own kingdom. He gave Cromwell orders to arrest all the men named in the charges, including Queen Anne.

Anne Boleyn was taken to the Tower of London on May 2, 1536, one day following the arrival of her brother and the other men accused. Anne was brought by barge to the Tower in broad daylight. In near hysteria, she sank to her knees on the steps of the Tower Court Gate and prayed for God to help her, that she was not guilty of her "accusement." When told she would be taken to the same apartments that she resided in just before her coronation, Anne laughed almost uncontrollably, on the verge of collapse; in the next breath she began weeping. "My God, bear witness there is no truth in these charges."

In the meantime, the King was already making plans to wed Jane Seymour, installing her at Beddington Park, the Surrey home of Sir Nicholas Carew. Henry visited Jane discreetly, but as he revered his new ladylove he insisted that nothing improper take place between them and they were always chaperoned by members of the Seymour family.

The men charged with Anne were found guilty and sentenced to death on May 12, 1536 (Rochford's trial would follow one day after that of his sister). Two days later Anne entered the Great Hall of the Tower to face her own charges. More than two thousand spectators were on hand to watch the proceedings, but Anne managed to maintain an outward show of calm and dignity. She refuted the charges against her, but to no avail. The twenty-six peers who sat in judgment of her found her guilty of the charges and sentenced her to death. Anne received the news with surprising serenity. She claimed she was prepared to die, although she would not acknowledge her guilty sentence and claimed she had always been faithful to the King. 

Anne was moved to the Lord Lieutenants House, a building that rested between the Bloody Tower and The Bell Tower. On May 17, 1536, the men accused with Anne were beheaded on Tower Hill. In a rare show of kindness, the King had granted Anne's request to be executed with a French sword rather than an axe.

At nine o'clock in the morning of May 19, 1536 Anne Boleyn appeared at Tower Hill, ready to meet her maker. Again (as during her trial), there were almost two thousand spectators. The specially built scaffold had been draped in black cloth and lain with straw; the wooden block was low and prominent in the center.

Anne addressed the assembled crowd:

Good Christian people, I am come hither to die, for according to the law, and by the law I am judged to die, and therefore I will speak nothing against it. I am come hither to accuse no man, nor to speak anything of that, whereof I am accused and condemned to die, but I pray God save the king and send him long to reign over you, for a gentler nor a more merciful prince was there never: and to me he was ever a good, a gentle and sovereign lord. And if any person will meddle of my cause, I require them to judge the best. And thus I take my leave of the world and of you all, and I heartily desire you all to pray for me. O Lord have mercy on me, to God I commend my soul.

Anne was then blindfolded, and led to the block. As the executioner began to wield the sword, Anne spoke over and over: "To Jesus Christ I commend my soul; Lord Jesu receive my soul...." When Anne's head fell into the scaffold straw, the guns boomed at the Tower. Anne's head and body were placed in an old arrow chest and hastily buried at the Chapel of St. Peter ad Vincula within the Tower.

The King heard the Tower guns signaling the death of his second wife; he dressed in white mourning as an outward show of respect for Anne, although he was in truth quite relieved. The King quickly made his way to Jane Seymour, whom he would marry a scant eleven days after Anne's execution.

The woman who had once enthralled England's King, who had inspired him to move heaven and earth to have her, meant nothing to him in the end. Anne's failure to provide a male heir for the English throne ultimately led to her death, although there is still debate on whether she was guilty of the charges put upon her in the final month of her life.

I prefer to believe Anne Boleyn was a pawn in the scheme of things; Henry VIII may have been passionately in love with her at one time, but his inherent drive to produce a son - the measure of a man - compelled him forward and erased all common compassion from his thought process. In doing so, he unknowingly opened the future door for his daughter Elizabeth - much like Henry in appearance and yet a mercurial reminder of her mother - to become one of England's most memorable monarchs.

Irony notwithstanding, perhaps Henry VIII received his comeuppance after all. 

Afterward:

Perhaps Anne Boleyn's greatest personal achievement was the birth of her daughter Elizabeth in 1533. While the child's future seemed dire just prior to and after Anne's execution, Elizabeth would prove to be both her father and mother's daughter when she finally ascended the English throne in 1558. Elizabeth would become one of England's greatest and longest-serving monarch's in an age when women were thought to be little more than adjuncts to their male counterparts. Although she had full power over her realm, Elizabeth managed to portray herself as a "mere woman" while at the same time ruling her country with great pride and a wily and sometimes unpredictable iron fist.

Anne's daughter possessed Henry VIII's red hair but her mothers' dark eyes; Elizabeth was known to also have Anne's mercurial gift of flirtation and a frequent penchant for high-strung nervousness. At the same time the daughter of Henry VIII and Anne Boleyn had a steely and more often than not brilliant determination that kept her safely on the English throne for more than thirty-five years. Left motherless at age three, Elizabeth would endure bastardization at the decree of her own father and many years of isolation and disgrace before being reinstated to the line of succession upon her father's death in 1547. Is it any wonder she grew to be a strong and unfathomable enigma of a woman; albeit with a sharp and oftentimes coarse edge?

Anne Boleyn's great strength of character and unique intelligence would lend itself well to her only child, and would forever render Anne's legacy into history and that of the English monarchy.

 

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